The Influence of Music on the Perception of Physical
Attractiveness
Rachael
Carmine
University
of Mount Union
Abstract
Existing
research shows that music can affect various forms of perception, such as gustatory
(taste) (Milliman, R. E., 1986) and visual perception (May & Hamilton,
1980). Research has also indicated a significant influence of music on physiological
responses (Vaaioki, A., et al., 2011) including skin conductance and heart rate
(Zimney &Weidenfeller, 1963). Forty-eight female subjects rated the
attractiveness of six male photo subjects while either listening to music or in
silence. We expected subjects who listen to music to have an increased heart
rate during the climactic points in the music and during this time would rate
photo subjects more attractive than participants who are not listening to
music. However, the opposite effect happened. The heart rate of those who were
in the experimental group had a steadier heart rate than those in the control
group. There was a trend for one photo subject (5A/2B) where the data could
predict the photo ratings before and after this particular photo subject. These
findings suggest that music does have an effect on heart rate and there is an
effect on photo rating based on photo order.
Keywords:
heart rate, music, perception, physical attractiveness
The
Influence of Music on the Perception of Physical Attractiveness
Music
impacts people on a daily basis. It can influence mood by increasing dopamine,
it can affect the senses, and music can improve heart health, and can influence
choices. Can music impact perception, specifically perception of how attractive
another person appears? While music can
be used in education, therapy, spirituality, business, sociality, and many
other areas; what has not been explored is if music can impact physiology and,
in turn, impact perception. Researchers have found that music affects heart
rate and skin response (Landreth & Landreth, 1974). It has also been found
that listening to a certain genre of music while on a dating website has an
impact on the choice of potential partner (Brand, R. J., 2012). There are still
questions that remain about how strongly music can affect an individual’s
physiology and perception.
May and Hamilton (1980), hypothesized that “affective
stimuli” could influence perception of physical attractiveness. Their second
hypothesis was that there are many stimuli, either active or passive, that
could affect an already aroused person’s judgment. They conducted a study that
tested the perceptions of aroused women viewing photos of men deemed attractive
or unattractive. The stimuli that were used while the photographs were viewed
were rock music, avant-garde music, and no music. Multiple photos of males were
obtained from a professional photographer. These photos were all head shots of
males who were dressed similarly and had a low risk of the female views
recognizing the male photo subject. Eighteen females were separated into one of
the three different stimuli categories (rock music, avant-garde music, or no
music) and viewed these photo subjects and rated them on attractiveness on a
scale from 1(“extremely unattractive”) to 7 (“extremely attractive”). A second
study was conducted with 13 musical genres as stimuli. Twenty-four subjects
listened to each musical piece and rated their feelings on a scale adapted from
Bryrne and Sheffield (1965) that has 11 states of feeling including but not
limited to “entertained, sexually aroused, bored, and depressed.”
It was found that photos viewed in the rock
music stimulus were thought more attractive than photos viewed with the
avant-garde stimulus or with no music at all. Subjects positively responded to
personal character and attraction in the rock music stimulus than in the
avant-garde selections or the silent control group. Because of these findings,
it was concluded that music can influence a person’s visual perception.
Zillman
and Bhatia (1989) created a study that sought the effects of sharing a music
preference in the lives of young adults though the use of dating videos. The
experimental group disclosed what their given music preferences were; either
country, classical music, soft rock or, heavy metal. These dating videos were
then judged by a group of peers.
They discovered that music preference does
play a role in judgment of a dating partner. The results of this study showed
that a preference of country music had low ratings for both males and females.
For those who said they liked classical music, the ratings for women increased,
but decreased for men. The opposite of that was true for those who preferred
heavy metal.
Zimney and Weidenfeller (1963) conducted a
study that measured the effects of music on skin response (GSR) and heart rate.
Their hypothesis was that the reaction to three different pieces of music that
were said to be “exciting, neutral, and calming” would affect the “resistance”
of GSR and also heart rate.
What
they found was music can influence GSR, which means it increases emotions. They
also found that the music deemed “exciting” increased heart rate, but did not
change for the “neutral” or “calming” pieces. Their hypothesis was partly
confirmed.
After
reviewing the literature, our hypotheses began to form. Our first hypothesis
was that participants in the music condition would have higher overall ratings
for the photo subjects than the participants in the silence condition. Our second
hypothesis stated that participants in the music condition would experience
higher overall heart rate while viewing the photos.
Methods
Participants
Males. Six
male students, age 18 and older, from the University of Mount Union were
recruited as voluntary subjects of photographs. Informed consent for males was
given using a paper document and females’ informed consent was obtained through
the use of a link from the SONA research management system. Students were also
recruited online through the SONA research management system. We required photo subjects not wear any
piercings or have exposed any tattoos. We gave our photo subjects a white lab
coat to wear to standardize the photo as much as possible. Photo subjects were
asked to give consent to have their picture used in the main focus of the
study.
Females. Forty-
eight female students in enrolled in psychology courses, above the age of 18,
from a Midwestern university were recruited as subjects in this study. Informed
consent was obtained electronically. Students were recruited online through the
SONA research management system. Because the experiment was performed with
music, we required, through SONA that students with significant hearing
impairments would not participate. None of our participants left the study for
this reason.
Design
This study is considered
a two (order) by two (condition) by six(photos) mixed repeated measures design
because there are two independent variables with six levels of each.The
independent variables of this study were the two orders of photo and the two
conditions. Our dependent variable is heart rate. The six levels are the photo
subjects. The resting heart rate is base measurement and the increased heart
rate is what was measured. The dependent
variable is the rating of attractiveness of the photos of each male subject by
the female participants.
Materials
Photos. Six
black and white headshots of the male participants were used in this study.
Photos of the six male participants were taken with a digital camera in the
psychology department building against a solid color wall. The photos were
presented along with a preference rating 1 though 5, one being the least
attractive and five being the most attractive. The viewing of these photos and
the ratings were presented on a computer. The six photos of males were rated in
view of attractiveness by females.
Heart Rate. The
female subjects were monitored for heart rate and recorded by the Bio-Pac
system. This system records heart rate, skin conductance, and blood pressure.
Because heart rate was a variable to this study it was measured at each female
participant’s resting heart rate and then was recorded throughout the study for
sixty seconds with a break in recording for fifteen seconds, to see if music
had an impact on the rhythm of the pulse.
.
Survey.
A survey was presented to the female participants on a computer. (Please refer
to Appendices A and B)
Music. The
music that was played during this time with the experimental group was
Beethoven’s Symphony No. 7, Movement II – Allegretto. This Romantic Era piece
was played aloud on a computer with speakers. The reason for this piece was
because it is a Romantic Era piece which allows for expression more so than
that of an earlier era. Generally, the second movements of symphonies during
this time period have more climactic points within this particular section of
the piece than in a different movement.
Procedure
In advance, 6
males were recruited as photo participants. These photo participants arrived at
the psychology department building at a designated time they scheduled before
hand. They were asked to give consent to allow their photo to be used during
this study. They were assured that their photos would be kept in a locked room
where only the researchers would have access to them.
Forty-eight
female were asked to sign an informed consent form and then sign in on a numbered
participant list. Depending on the participant’s number, they were separated
into either the control group or the experimental group. This number also
corresponded with which order the photos would be presented in, either order A
or order B. Each subject participated in a single session.
Physiological data was gathered throughout both sessions.
At the beginning of the session electrodes
were then attached to the participant’s ankles and wrist, to measure her heart
rate with the Biopac cardiograph. The participant was given instructions for
watching a three minute neutral video to measure base line heart rate.
The
control group session was conducted
without the presence of music. The physiological responses of the participants
were monitored as they viewed and rated photographs of individuals on physical
attractiveness. The photographs were of male volunteers and each photo
was presented for 60
seconds, with ten seconds to rate the subject on a likert scale of one, which
was the least attractive, to five, which was the most attractive, and then a
five-second pause before the next photograph.
The
participants assigned to the experimental
session, conducted the task
in the same manner, but with music playing during the rating of the
photographs. The music was Ludwig van Beethoven’s Symphony
No. 7, Movement II -
Allegretto. The piece played for the duration of the rating segment. These
participants completed a different questionnaire relative to this condition. At the end of the photo ratings, the
participants were presented with a demographics questionnaire (Please refer to
appendices A and B). During this time, heart rate was not measured. After this, participants were able to remove
their electrodes and were debriefed.
Results
Our first hypothesis
was not supported. Photo ratings in each condition had no statistical
difference. (F(4.4,195.6)=.794, p>.05) Data was gathered, prepared and ready for
analysis using Microsoft Windows Excel spread sheet and the raw data calculated
by SPSS. The data given was used to find the means of the facial ratings in
both the music and silence group. (F(4.4,195.6)=.794,
p>.05) The mean was also found
for the control and experimental heart rate of both groups. (F
(3.406, 112.697) = 3.710, p < 0.05)
There was an interaction found
between photo subjects and condition on heart rate. (See Table 2). Our second
hypothesis was also not supported. Rather than the participants in the music
condition experiencing a higher over all heart rate, we found that then music
group’s heart rate was steadier than that of the control group. No statistical
significance was found between heart rate and condition.
The interaction between photo subjects and condition was
found to have a significant effect of heart rate F (3.406, 112.697) = 3.710, p < 0.05. Heart rate varied much less
during the music condition than during the silence condition. Heart rate was
steadier in the music group and more reactive in the control group. There was a photo by order interaction. (please see table 3) There was a
trend in the order where, p <
0.01. F (1.44) = 3.24, p = 0.079. Photo
subject 3A/4B is rated as being less attractive when viewed before 6A/1B, but
is rated as being more attractive when viewed after. With regression analysis,
it was found that heart rate can provide an accurate prediction of the
participant’s rating of this photo subject. The data revealed a trend within
photo subject 5A/2B. F (1.43) = 2.56, p
< 0.10.
Discussion
Data
from the Bio-Pac machine was gathered for analysis using Microsoft Windows
Excel spread sheet and the raw data calculated by SPSS. Our first hypothesis
was that participants in the music condition would have higher overall ratings
for the photo subjects than the participants in the silence condition. It was
found that photo ratings in each condition had no statistical difference. (F(4.4,195.6)=.794,
p>.05 The data given was used
to find the means of the facial ratings in both the music and silence group. (See
Table 1) The mean was
also found for the control and experimental heart rate of both groups. (See
Table 2) There was an interaction
found between photo subjects and condition on heart rate. (F (3.406, 112.697) =
3.710, p < 0.05) Our second hypothesis was also not supported. Rather
than the participants in the music condition experiencing a higher over all
heart rate, we found that then music group’s heart rate was steadier than that
of the control group. No statistical significance was found between heart rate
and condition. (F(3.4,136.3)=3.71, p>.05)
The interaction between photo subjects and condition was
found to have a significant effect of heart rate F (3.406, 112.697) = 3.710, p < 0.05. Heart rate varied much less
during the music condition than during the silence condition. Heart rate was
steadier in the music group and more reactive in the control group. There was a
photo by order interaction and there was a trend in the order where,. F (1.44)
= 3.24, p = 0.079.As an example,
photo subject 3A/4B is rated as being less attractive when viewed before 6A/1B,
but is rated as being more attractive when viewed after. (See Table 3) With regression analysis, the
data revealed a trend within photo subject 5A/2B. (F (1.43) = 2.56, p < 0.10) It was found that heart
rate can provide an accurate prediction of the participants rating of this
particular photo subject.
Limits
There are many
variables that should be taken into consideration that were not controlled and
that could have impacted this study; such as sexual preference, the woman’s
menstrual cycle, the number of participants, and whether the subjects are in a
relationship or not. These variables could impact the study in different ways.
Limit
1.
One variable to consider is a woman menstrual cycle. During this cycle, a
woman’s hormones are not acting as they would during her time she is not
menstruating. A woman can be easily aroused or annoyed by many different
stimuli outside of the controlled environment, as well as the controlled
stimuli. The reaction of the woman’s hormones could in turn impact the ratings
of the photo subjects.
Limit
2.The
number of participants is a factor. At this particular university, there are
not as many male students as there are female students. There is a limited
sample size and the possibility of a female participant recognizing a male
photo subject is very probable. It is also possible that a female subject could
be in a relationship with a photo subject. If any of the female participants
are in a relationship then that could cause inaccurate data. These people could
be biased because of their relationship and not want or desire to view another
person as attractive or not. Therefore, this could impact the data gathered.
Future
Research
This research could be modified and applied to
further research looking to find more about music and perception in any form
including, but not limited to business, education, and therapy techniques; as
well as improve relationships. A two
part study would be suggested to get the most accurate results possible. To create the two part study, both males and
females would participate as photo subjects or participate in the study itself.
This study would span over a longer period of time. The reason for the length
would be due to the participants in the study rating photos both in silence and
listening to music.
|
APPENDIX
A
CONTROL CONDITION SURVEY
|
1. Please
enter your subject number as it is provided to you by the researcher.
_____________________________
2. What
is your age?
______________________________
3. What
is your year in school?
o Freshman
o Sophomore
o Junior
o Senior
4. What
is your sexual orientation?
o Heterosexual
o Homosexual
o Bisexual
o Other
o Prefer not to disclose
5. What
is your current relationship status?
o Married
o In a relationship
o Single
o Prefer not to disclose
|
APPENDIX
B
EXPERIMENTAL
CONDITION SURVEY
|
1. Please enter your subject number as it is
provided to you by the researcher.
_____________________________
2. What is your age?
______________________________
3. What is your year in school?
o Freshman
o Sophomore
o Junior
o Senior
4. What is your sexual orientation?
o Heterosexual
o Homosexual
o Bisexual
o Other
o Prefer not to disclose
5. What is your current relationship status?
o Married
o In a relationship
o Single
o Prefer not to disclose
6. Are you familiar with the music selection?
o Yes
o No
7. How much did you like the piece?
1 2 3 4 5
Not At All Neutral Very
Much
8. How did the music make you feel?
References
Brand, R.J., Bonatsos, A.,
O'Orazio, R., & DeShong, H. (2012). What is beautiful is good, even online:
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S. (2012). The effect of music-induced mood on aggressive affect, cognition,
and behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 42(2), 271-290.
Landreth, J., &
Landreth, H. (1974). Effects of music on physiological response. Journal of Research in Music Education, 22(1), 4-12.
Levitin, D. J. (2006).
This is Your Brain On Music: The Science of a Human Obsession. East Rutherford,
New Jersey, United States of America.
May, J., & Hamilton, P.
(1980). Effects of musically evoked affect on women. Motivation and Emotion, 4(3),
217-228.
Milliman, R.E. (1986). The influence of
background music on the behavior of restaurant patrons. Journal of Consumer
Research, 13, 286-289.
Vaajoki, A., Kankkunen, P.,
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intervention: Effects of music listening on blood pressure, heart rate, and
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